如前文所提到的,目前国际政治学者关注的风险偏好理论主要有预期效用理论、前景理论和个性理论三种。最早的关于风险偏好的理论可以追溯到预期效用模型。[18]这一理论假设行为体是绝对理性的,在决策中每个人都试图规避风险、争取效用的最大化。而不同政策选项的效用是由其效用价值与发生概率决定的,因此,概率是预期效用理论理解风险与不确定性的理性路径,也是体现风险的客观指标。在应用于国际政治领域时,预期效用理论一度成为主流国际政治学者,特别是现实主义学者理解不确定性条件下决策的基石。其中,最具代表性的就是布鲁斯·布恩诺·德·梅斯奎塔(Bruce Bueno de Mesquita)提出的“预期效用战争理论”(Expected Utility Theory of War),该理论认为决策者走向战争的必要条件是战争相较其他政策选项来说具有更高的效用。[19]该理论在随后的几十年里一直被不断地检验和修正。[20]此外,詹姆斯·费伦(James D.Fearon)的代表作《战争的理性主义解释》(Rationalist Explanations for War)也借用了预期效用理论的基本假定,认为行为体都是风险规避或风险中性的,他们的本意都是避免战争的爆发。[21]
在进行具体偏好形成分析之前,我们需要明确两个分析的前提。第一,与风险决策相关的情绪有三种:预期情绪(anticipated emotion)、决策后情绪(post-decision emotion)与决策时情绪(decision process emotion)。[64]前两种情绪都是在决策结果出现后决策者才能经历完整个情绪过程,而非在决策时就能经历。[65]换言之,这两种情绪都不直接影响决策过程中的风险偏好塑造,因此,本文只讨论决策时情绪(又称即时情绪)。第二,本文之所以把情绪放在最后决策阶段并非因为情绪在第二阶段不存在[66],而是因为情绪本身具有即时性且相对动态,所以真正对决策起决定作用的是最终决策环节行为者的情绪。
除了与决策情境相互作用以外,情绪还与个体特征相互影响。神经科学研究者提出了人类思维的双重加工理论(Dual Process Theory),认为“人类的思维过程存在两个截然不同的机制,一个是快速的、自发的和无意识的,而另一个是缓慢的、控制的和有意识的,这两种机制大多独立运行并且相互争夺最终的行为控制权”[74]。前者又称为快思考,它是基于决策者之前的经历和观念来运行的。情绪常常伴随着快思考机制共同影响决策。[75]人们通常先感觉到某种情绪,再围绕情绪建立一个理性解释来说明他们为什么会对当前情境产生这种情绪。[76]
参见张清敏:《外交政策分析的三个流派》,载《世界经济与政治》,2001年第9期,第18—23页;Juliet Kaarbo and Margaret G. Hermann, “Leadership Styles of Prime Ministers: How Individual Differences Affect the Foreign Policymaking Process,” The Leadership Quarterly, Vol.9, No.3, 1998, pp.243-263; Janice Gross Stein, “The Micro-Foundations of International Relations Theory: Psychology and Behavioral Economics,” International Organization, Vol.71, No.S1, 2017, pp.S249-S263; Joan Barceló,“Are Western-Educated Leaders Less Prone to Initiate Militarized Disputes?” British Journal of Political Science, Vol.50, No.2, 2020, pp.535-566; Daniel Krcmaric, Stephen C. Nelson and Andrew Roberts, “Studying Leaders and Elites: The Personal Biography Approach,” Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.23, 2020, pp.133-151.
Jack S. Levy and William R. Thompson, Causes of War, Chichester and Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, p. 128.
参见Giacomo Chiozza and Hein Erich Goemans, Leaders and International Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011; Jeff D. Colgan, “Domestic Revolutionary Leaders and International Conflict,” World Politics, Vol.65, No.4, 2013, pp.656-690; Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” International Organization, Vol.68, No.3, 2014, pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015; Jeff D. Colgan and Edward R. Lucas, “Revolutionary Pathways: Leaders and the International Impacts of Domestic Revolutions,” International Interactions, Vol.43, No.3, 2017, pp.480-506.
Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight, pp.5-6.
Rui Mata et al., “Risk Preference: A View from Psychology,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.32, No.2, 2018, pp.155-172.
Laurence Steinberg, “The Influence of Neuroscience on US Supreme Court Decisions about Adolescents【-逻*辑*与-】apos; Criminal Culpability,” Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, Vol.14, No.7, 2013, pp.513-518.
Glenn W. Harrison and E. Elisabet Rutström, “Risk Aversion in the Laboratory,” in James C. Cox and Glenn W. Harrison, eds., Risk Aversion in Experiments (Research in Experimental Economics, Vol.12), Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.41-196.
Bernd Figner and Elke U. Weber, “Who Takes Risks When and Why? Determinants of Risk Taking,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol.20, No.4, 2011, pp.211-216.
Philip Bromiley and Shawn P. Curley, “Individual Differences in Risk Taking,” in J. Frank Yates, ed., Risk-Taking Behavior, New York: John Wiley 【-逻*辑*与-】amp; Sons, 1992, pp.87-132.
Avshalom Caspi, Brent W. Roberts and Rebecca L. Shiner, “Personality Development: Stability and Change,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.56, 2005, pp.453-484.
具体可参阅Graham T. Allison, “Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,” American Political Science Review, Vol.63, No.3, 1969, pp.689-718; Thomas Preston and Paul【-逻*辑*与-】apos;t Hart, “Understanding and Evaluating Bureaucratic Politics: The Nexus Between Political Leaders and Advisory,” Political Psychology, Vol.20, No.1, 1999, pp.49-98; Elizabeth N. Saunders, “No Substitute for Experience: Presidents, Advisers, and Information in Group Decision Making,” International Organization, Vol.71, Supplement 1, 2017, pp.S219-S247.
例如George F. Loewenstein et al., “Risk as Feelings,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol.127, No.2, 2001, pp.267-286; Bernd Figner and Elke U. Weber, “Who Takes Risks When and Why? Determinants of Risk Taking,” pp.211-216.
Giacomo Chiozza and Henk E. Goemans, Leaders and International Conflict; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
例如Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, “The War Trap Revisited: A Revised Expected Utility Model,” American Political Science Review, Vol.79, No.1, 1985, pp.156-177; Giacomo Chiozza and Henk E. Goemans, Leaders and International Conflict; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
Branislav L. Slantchev and Kelly S. Matush, “The Authoritarian Wager: Political Action and the Sudden Collapse of Repression,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol.53, No.2, 2020, pp.214-252.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, “The Contribution of Expected Utility Theory to the Study of International Conflict,” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol.18, No.4, 1988, pp.629-652.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, “An Expected Utility Theory of International Conflict,” The American Political Science Review, Vol.74, No.4, 1980, pp.917-931.
James D. Morrow, “A Continuous-Outcome Expected Utility Theory of War,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.29, No.3, 1985, pp.473-502; Roslyn Simowitz and Barry L. Price, “The Expected Utility Theory of Conflict: Measuring Theoretical Progress,” The American Political Science Review, Vol.84, No.2, 1990, pp.439-460; D. Scott Bennett and Allan C. Stam, “A Universal Test of an Expected Utility Theory of War,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol.44, No.3, 2000, pp.451-480.
James D. Fearon, “Rationalist Explanations for War,” International Organization, Vol.49, No.3, 1995, pp.379-414.
Herbert A. Simon, “Theories of Bounded Rationality,” Decision and Organization, Vol.1, No.1, 1972, pp.161-176.
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk,” Econometrica, Vol.47, No.2, 1979, pp.263-291.
参见Jack S. Levy, “Prospect Theory and International Relations: Theoretical Applications and Analytical Problems,” Political Psychology, Vol.13, No.2, 1992, pp.283-310; Jack S. Levy, “Loss Aversion, Framing, and Bargaining: The Implications of Prospect Theory for International Conflict,” International Political Science Review, Vol.17, No.2, 1996, pp.179-195; Jonathan Mercer, “Prospect Theory and Political Science,” Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.8, No.1, 2005, pp.1-21;林民旺:《前景理论与外交决策》,载《外交评论》,2006年第5期,第62—68页;尹继武:《国际政治心理学知识谱系》,载《世界经济与政治》,2011年第4期,第48—78页。
例如Barbara Farnham, “Roosevelt and the Munich Crisis: Insights from Prospect Theory,” Political Psychology, Vol.13, No.2, Special Issue: Prospect Theory and Political Psychology, 1992, pp.205-235; William A. Boettcher Ⅲ,“The Prospects for Prospect Theory: An Empirical Evaluation of International Relations Applications of Framing and Loss Aversion,” Political Psychology, Vol.25, No.3, 2004, pp.331-362; Anat Niv-Solomon, “When Risky Decisions are not Surprising: An Application of Prospect Theory to the Israeli War Decision in 2006,” Cooperation and Conflict, Vol.51, No.4, 2016, pp.484-503.
Ole R. Holsti, “Individual Differences in ‘Definition of the Situation’,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.14, No.3, 1970, pp.303-310.
例如John Cullis, Philip Jones and Alan Lewis, “Tax Framing, Instrumentality and Individual Differences: Are There Two Different Cultures?” Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol.27, No.2, 2006, pp.304-320; Yunhui Huang and Lei Wang, “Sex Differences in Framing Effects across Task Domain,” Personality and Individual Differences, Vol.48, No.5, 2010, pp.649-653.
Christopher K. Hsee and Elke U. Weber, “Cross-National Differences in Risk Preference and Lay Predictions,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, Vol.12, No.2, 1999, pp.165-179.
Chip Heath and Amos Tversky, “Preference and Belief: Ambiguity and Competence in Choice under Uncertainty,” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, Vol.4, No.1, 1991, pp.5-28.
Alexander L. George, “The Impact of Crisis-Induced Stress on Decision Making,” in Fredric Solomon and Robert Q. Marston, eds.,The Medical Implications of Nuclear War, Washington, D. C.: National Academies Press, 1986, pp.529-552; Gregory M. Herek, Irving L. Janis and Paul Huth, “Decision Making during International Crises: Is Quality of Process Related to Outcome?” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.31, No.2, 1987, pp.203-226; Giacomo Chiozza and Henk E. Goemans, Leaders and International Conflict; Modupe Akinola and Wendy Berry Mendes, “Stress-Induced Cortisol Facilitates Threat-related Decision Making among Police Officers,” Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol.126, No.1, 2012, pp.167-174.
Carol Gordon and Asher Arian, “Threat and Decision Making,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.45, No.2, 2001, pp.196-215.
参见Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, “Rational Deterrence Theory: I Think, Therefore I Deter,” World Politics, Vol.41, No.2, 1989, pp.208-224; Mattison Mines and Vijayalakshmi Gourishankar, “Leadership and Individuality in South Asia: The Case of the South Indian Big-Man,” The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.49, No.4, 1990, pp.761-786; James M. Goldgeier, Leadership Style and Soviet Foreign Policy: Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Gorbachev, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994; Paul A. Kowert and Margaret G. Hermann, “Who Takes Risks? Daring and Caution in Foreign Policy Making,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.41, No.5, 1997, pp.611-637; Stephen Benedict Dyson and Thomas Preston, “Individual Characteristics of Political Leaders and the Use of Analogy in Foreign Policy Decision Making,” Political Psychology, Vol.27, No.2, 2006, pp.265-288; Elizabeth N. Saunders, Leaders at War: How Presidents Shape Military Interventions, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011; Eldad Yechiam and Eyal Ert, “Risk Attitude in Decision Making: In Search of Trait-Like Constructs,” Topics in Cognitive Science, Vol.3, No.1, 2011, pp.166-186; Jeff D. Colgan, “Domestic Revolutionary Leaders and International Conflict,” pp.656-690; Maryann E. Gallagher and Susan H. Allen, “Presidential Personality: Not Just a Nuisance,” Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol.10, No.1, 2014, pp.1-21; Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight; Jeff D. Colgan and Edward R. Lucas, “Revolutionary Pathways: Leaders and the International Impacts of Domestic Revolutions,” pp.480-506; Danielle L. Lupton, “Out of the Service, into the House: Military Experience and Congressional War Oversight,” Political Research Quarterly, Vol.70, No.2, 2017, pp.327-339; Elizabeth N. Saunders, “No Substitute for Experience: Presidents, Advisers, and Information in Group Decision Making,” International Organization, Vol.71, Supplement 1, 2017, pp.S219-S247.
Emilie M. Hafner-Burton et al., “The Behavioral Revolution and International Relations,” International Organization, Vol.71, Supplement 1, 2017, p. 2.
例如张清敏:《国际政治心理学流派评析》,载《国际政治科学》,2008年第3期,第71—101页;左希迎、唐世平:《理解战略行为:一个初步的分析框架》,载《中国社会科学》,2012年第11期,第178—202页;Jeff D. Colgan, “Domestic Revolutionary Leaders and International Conflict,” pp.656-690; Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight; Jeff D. Colgan and Edward R. Lucas, “Revolutionary Pathways: Leaders and the International Impacts of Domestic Revolutions,” pp.480-506; Nam Kyu Kim, “Revolutionary Leaders and Mass Killing,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.62, No.2, 2018, pp.289-317.
Jeff D. Colgan, “Domestic Revolutionary Leaders and International Conflict,” pp.656-690.
Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
Jessica L. Weeks, “Strongmen and Straw Men: Authoritarian Regimes and the Initiation of International Conflict,” American Political Science Review, Vol.106, No.2, 2012, pp.326-347; Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
例如Paul Huth, D. Scott Bennett and Christopher Gelpi, “System Uncertainty, Risk Propensity, and International Conflict among the Great Powers,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.36, No.3, 1992, pp.478-517; Rose McDermott, Risk-Taking in International Politics: Prospect Theory in American Foreign Policy, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
Marvin Zuckerman and D. Michael Kuhlman, “Personality and Risk-Taking: Common Bisocial Factors,” Journal of Personality, Vol.68, No.6, 2000, pp.999-1029.
Rose McDermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004, pp.135-136.
例如Michael Horowitz, Rose McDermott and Allan C. Stam, “Leader Age, Regime Type, and Violent International Relations,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.49, No.5, 2005, pp.661-685; Daehee Bak and Glenn Palmer, “Testing the Biden Hypotheses: Leader Tenure, Age, and International Conflict,” Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol.6, No.3, 2010, pp.257-273.
例如Yunhui Huang and Lei Wang, “Sex Differences in Framing Effects across Task Domain,” pp.649-653; James P. Byrnes, David C. Miller and William D. Schafer, “Gender Differences in Risk Taking: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol.125, No.3, 1999, pp.367-383; Nancy Ammon Jianakoplos and Alexandra Bernasek, “Are Women More Risk Averse?” Economic Inquiry, Vol.36, No.4, 1998, pp.620-630.
具体可参阅Robert E. Gilbert, “The Politics of Presidential Illness: Ronald Reagan and the Iran-Contra Scandal,” Politics and the Life Sciences, Vol.33, No.2, 2014, pp.58-76.
例如Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
参见Thomas Gift and Daniel Krcmaric, “Who Democratizes? Western-Educated Leaders and Regime Transitions,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.61, No.3, 2017, pp.671-701; Joan Barceló,“Are Western-Educated Leaders Less Prone to Initiate Militarized Disputes?”,pp.535-566.
具体可参见Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “How Prior Military Experience Influences the Future Militarized Behavior of Leaders,” pp.527-559; Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight.
参见罗伯特·杰维斯著、秦亚青译:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,世界知识出版社2003年版。
Michael Horowitz, Rose McDermott and Allan C. Stam, “Leader Age, Regime Type, and Violent International Relations,” pp.661-685.
Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight, pp.142-143.
Bernd Figner et al., “Affective and Deliberative Processes in Risky Choice: Age Differences in Risk Taking in the Columbia Card Task,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol.35, No.3, 2009, pp.709-730.
James P. Byrnes, David C. Miller and William D. Schafer, “Gender Differences in Risk Taking: A Meta-Analysis,” pp.367-383.
罗伯特·杰维斯著、秦亚青译:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,世界知识出版社2003年版。
同上;Michael C. Horowitz et al., Why Leaders Fight, p. 10.
Michael Horowitz, Rose McDermott and Allan C. Stam, “Leader Age, Regime Type, and Violent International Relations,” pp.661-685.
Victor H. Vroom and Bernd Pahl, “Relationship between Age and Risk Taking among Managers,” Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.55, No.5, 1971, pp.399-405.
综述研究可参见Britain Mills, Valerie F. Reyna and Steven Estrada, “Explaining Contradictory Relations between Risk Perception and Risk Taking,” Psychological Science, Vol.19, No.5, 2008, pp.429-433.
Valerie F. Reyna and Frank Farley, “Risk and Rationality in Adolescent Decision Making: Implications for Theory, Practice, and Public Policy,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Vol.7, No.1, 2006, pp.1-44.
Rebecca J. Johnson, Kevin D. McCaul and William MP Klein, “Risk Involvement and Risk Perception among Adolescents and Young Adults,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol.25, No.1, 2002, pp.67-82.
Beth A. Kotchick et al., “Adolescent Sexual Risk Behavior: A Multi-System Perspective,” Clinical Psychology Review, Vol.21, No.4, 2001, pp.493-519.
Margaret G. Hermann, “How Decision Units Shape Foreign Policy: A Theoretical Framework,” International Studies Review, Vol.3, No.2, 2001, pp.60.
Alex Mintz, “Foreign Policy Decision Making in Familiar and Unfamiliar Settings: An Experimental Study of High-Ranking Military Officers,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.48, No.1, 2004, pp.91-104.
Norbert Schwarz and Gerald L. Clore, “Mood, Misattribution, and Judgments of Well-being: Informative and Directive Functions of Affective States,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.45, No.3, 1983, pp.513-523; Norbert Schwarz, “Feelings-as-Information Theory,” in Paul A. M.Van Lange et al., eds., Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2012, pp.289-308.
Jennifer S. Lerner and Dacher Keltner, “Fear, Anger, and Risk,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.81, No.1, 2001, pp.146-159.
刘永芳、毕玉芳、王怀勇:《情绪和任务框架对自我和预期他人决策时风险偏好的影响》,第317页。
George F. Loewenstein et al., “Risk as Feelings,” pp.267-286.
参见Alice M. Isen and Robert Patrick, “The Effect of Positive Feelings on Risk Taking: When the Chips are Down,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, Vol.31, No.2, 1983, pp.194-202; Doron Kliger and Ori Levy, “Mood-Induced Variation in Risk Preferences,” Journal of Economic Behavior 【-逻*辑*与-】amp; Organization, Vol.52, No.4, 2003, pp.573-584.
Jonathan St.B.T.Evans and Keith Frankish, “Preface,” in Jonathan St.B.T.Evans and Keith Frankish, eds., Two Minds: Dual Processes and Beyond, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. v.
Jonathan St.B.T.Evans, “Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.59, 2008, pp.255-278.
Jonathan Haidt, “The Emotional Dog and its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment,” Psychological Review, Vol.108, No.4, 2001, pp.814-834; Jonathan Renshon, Julia J. Lee and Dustin Tingley, “Emotions and the Micro-Foundations of Commitment Problems,” International Organization, Vol.71, No.S1, 2017, pp.S189-S218.
Bernd Figner et al., “Affective and Deliberative Processes in Risky Choice: Age Differences in Risk Taking in the Columbia Card Task,” pp.709-730.
同上。
Barbara Penolazzi, Paola Gremigni and Paolo Maria Russo, “Impulsivity and Reward Sensitivity Differentially Influence Affective and Deliberative Risky Decision Making,” Personality and Individual Differences, Vol.53, No.5, 2012, pp.655-659.
Jeffery W. Taliaferro, “Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited,” International Security, Vol.25, No.3, 2000—2001, pp.128-161;约翰·米尔斯海默著,王义桅、唐小松译:《大国政治的悲剧》,上海人民出版社2008年版;Brian Rathbun, “A Rose by Any Other Name: Neoclassical Realism as the Logical and Necessary Extension of Structural Realism,” Security Studies, Vol.17, No.2, 2008, pp.294-321;戴尔·科普兰著,黄福武、张立改译:《大战的起源》,社会科学文献出版社2017年版。
Miles Kahler, “Rationality in International Relations,” International Organization, Vol.52, No.4, 1998, pp.919-941.
例如James D. Fearon, “Rationalist Explanations for War,” pp.379-414.
肯尼思·华尔兹著、信强译:《国际政治理论》,上海人民出版社2008年版。
Gideon Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy,” World Politics, Vol.51, No.1, 1998, p. 145;袁正清:《建构主义与外交政策分析》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第9期,第8—13页。
Jeffery W. Taliaferro, “Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited,” pp.128-161;约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》;肯尼思·华尔兹:《国际政治理论》;戴尔·科普兰:《大战的起源》。
Michael D. Wallace, Brian L. Crissey and Linn I. Sennott, “Accidental Nuclear War: A Risk Assessment,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol.23, No.1, 1986, pp.9-27; Pavel Podvig, “Reducing the Risk of an Accidental Launch,” Science and Global Security, Vol.14, No.2-3, 2006, pp.75-115; Bruce G. Blair, The Logic of Accidental Nuclear War, Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011.
Valerie M. Hudson, “Foreign Policy Analysis: Actor-specific Theory and the Ground of International Relations,” Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol.1, No.1, 2005, pp.1-30;张清敏:《外交决策的微观分析模式及其应用》,载《世界经济与政治》,2006年第11期,第15—23页;卢凌宇、林敏娟:《外交决策分析与国际关系学范式革命》,载《世界经济与政治》,2015年第3期,第74—102页。
Cali Mortenson Ellis, Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “Introducing the LEAD Data Set,” International Interactions, Vol.41, No.4, 2015, pp.718-741.
例如Barbara Farnham, “Roosevelt and the Munich Crisis: Insights from Prospect Theory,” pp.205-235; William A. Boettcher Ⅲ,“The Prospects for Prospect Theory: An Empirical Evaluation of International Relations Applications of Framing and Loss Aversion,” pp.331-362; Anat Niv-Solomon, “When Risky Decisions are not Surprising: An Application of Prospect Theory to the Israeli War Decision in 2006,” pp.484-503.
Barry O【-逻*辑*与-】apos;Neill, “Risk Aversion in International Relations Theory,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol.45, No.4, 2001, pp.617-640.
例如Paul Huth, D. Scott Bennett and Christopher Gelpi, “System Uncertainty, Risk Propensity, and International Conflict among the Great Powers,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.36, No.3, 1992, pp.478-517; Paul Huth, Christopher Gelpi and D. Scott Bennett, “The Escalation of Great Power Militarized Disputes: Testing Rational Deterrence Theory and Structural Realism,” American Political Science Review, Vol.87, No.3, 1993, pp.609-623; D. Scott Bennett and Allan C. Stam, “The Duration of Interstate Wars, 1816—1985,” American Political Science Review, Vol.90, No.2, 1996, pp.239-257.
例如Sim B. Sitkin and Amy L. Pablo, “Reconceptualizing the Determinants of Risk Behavior,” Academy of Management Review, Vol.17, No.1, 1992, pp.9-38; Sim B. Sitkin and Laurie R. Weingart, “Determinants of Risky Decision-Making Behavior: A Test of the Mediating Role of Risk Perceptions and Propensity,” Academy of Management Journal, Vol.38, No.6, 1995, pp.1573-1592; Robert West and Jane Hall, “The Role of Personality and Attitudes in Traffic Accident Risk,” Applied Psychology, Vol.46, No.3, 1997, pp.253-264; Mark Simon, Susan M. Houghton and Karl Aquino, “Cognitive Biases, Risk Perception, and Venture Formation: How Individuals Decide to Start Companies,” Journal of Business Venturing, Vol.15, No.2, 2000, pp.113-134; Margarete Vollrath and Svenn Torgersen, “Who Takes Health Risks? A Probe into Eight Personality Types,” Personality and Individual Differences, Vol.32, No.7, 2002, pp.1185-1197; Nigel Nicholson et al., “Personality and Domain-Specific Risk Taking,” Journal of Risk Research, Vol.8, No.2, 2005, pp.157-176.
Cali Mortenson Ellis, Michael C. Horowitz and Allan C. Stam, “Introducing the LEAD Data Set,” pp.718-741.